Overview

The T-90 is a Russian third-generation main battle tank developed in the late 1980s as an affordable modernization of the T-72B. Entering service in 1992, it combines the proven T-72 chassis with advanced Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armor, the Shtora soft-kill active protection system, and a sophisticated 1A45T "Irtysh" fire control system. Over 5,000 T-90s have been produced for Russia and export customers, making it one of the most successful modern Russian weapon systems.

Historical context

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia faced economic constraints preventing large-scale procurement of the expensive T-80U gas turbine tank. The more economical diesel-powered T-72, despite proven reliability, lacked modern protection and fire control. In 1989, Uralvagonzavod chief designer Vladimir Potkin initiated "Object 188" as a deep modernization of the T-72B incorporating technologies from the T-80U.

The prototype combined the T-72B's diesel powerplant with Kontakt-5 heavy explosive reactive armor, the 2A46M smoothbore gun, and crucially, the Shtora-1 electro-optical countermeasure system designed to disrupt laser-guided anti-tank missiles. Initial production as "T-72BU" began in 1992, with formal adoption as "T-90" (commemorating the 1990s decade) aimed at distancing the design from the T-72's Gulf War reputation.

The T-90 filled Russia's requirement for a cost-effective MBT balancing protection, firepower, and affordability. Its export success—particularly to India, which licensed production—validated the design philosophy of incremental modernization over revolutionary change.

Specifications

Commonly cited specifications (T-90A baseline):

Dimensions:

  • Length (gun forward): 9.53 m (31 ft 3 in)
  • Hull length: 6.86 m (22 ft 6 in)
  • Width: 3.78 m (12 ft 5 in) with ERA
  • Height: 2.23 m (7 ft 4 in)
  • Ground clearance: 0.49 m (19 in)

Weights:

  • Combat weight: 46,500 kg (102,515 lb)
  • Power-to-weight ratio: 21.5 hp/ton

Armor:

  • Base armor: Steel composite arrays with ceramic inserts
  • ERA: Kontakt-5 heavy explosive reactive armor
  • Protection levels:
    • Frontal arc: 850-900 mm RHAe vs. APFSDS, 1,150-1,350 mm vs. HEAT
    • Turret front: 950-1,000 mm RHAe vs. APFSDS, 1,200-1,400 mm vs. HEAT
    • Sides: 200-250 mm with Kontakt-5 bricks

Powerplant:

  • Engine: V-92S2 12-cylinder diesel (multi-fuel capable)
  • Power: 1,000 hp (746 kW) at 2,000 rpm
  • Displacement: 38.88 L
  • Fuel capacity: 1,200 L internal + 400 L external
  • Transmission: Automatic (later models), 5-speed manual (early)

Performance:

  • Maximum speed: 60 km/h (37 mph) on road, 45 km/h (28 mph) off-road
  • Reverse speed: 10 km/h (6 mph)
  • Range: 550 km (342 mi) internal fuel, 700 km (435 mi) with external
  • Fuel consumption: 1.8-2.2 L/km
  • Acceleration: 0-32 km/h in 7-9 seconds
  • Gradient: 60% (31°)
  • Trench crossing: 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in)
  • Vertical obstacle: 0.85 m (2 ft 9 in)
  • Fording: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) unprepared, 5 m (16 ft) with snorkel

Armament:

Main gun: 2A46M 125 mm smoothbore (later 2A46M-5 on T-90M)

  • Ammunition: 43 rounds (22 in autoloader, 21 reserve)
  • Fire rate: 6-8 rounds/min (autoloader-fed)
  • Effective range: 2,500-3,000 m vs. armor, 5,000 m indirect
  • Penetration: 650+ mm at 2,000 m (3BM42M "Lekalo" APFSDS)
  • Gun-launched ATGM: 9M119M "Refleks-M" (AT-11 "Sniper"), 5,000 m range, 700-900 mm penetration

Secondary weapons:

  • Coaxial: 7.62 mm PKT machine gun (2,000 rounds)
  • Anti-aircraft: 12.7 mm NSVT heavy machine gun (300 rounds)
  • Smoke: 81 mm 902B "Tucha-3" grenade launchers (×8)

Crew:

  • Complement: 3 (commander, gunner, driver)

Design characteristics

Armor protection

Kontakt-5 heavy ERA: Second-generation explosive reactive armor with double-layer explosive cassettes effective against both shaped charges and long-rod penetrators

Composite arrays: Steel/ceramic/polymer sandwich construction in turret and glacis

Modular protection: Add-on armor packages for specific threat environments

Top-attack vulnerability: Roof armor (40-45 mm) remains weak point vs. Javelin-type ATGMs

Shtora-1 active protection system

Electro-optical countermeasure suite:

  • TShU-1-7 infrared jammers: Two rotating dazzlers on turret disrupting SACLOS guidance (Semi-Automatic Command to Line of Sight)
  • Laser warning receivers: Detect incoming laser designators/rangefinders, trigger automatic smoke deployment and evasive maneuvers
  • Aerosol screening: Rapid smoke generation creating multi-spectral obscuration

Limitations:

  • Ineffective vs. fire-and-forget missiles (Javelin, Brimstone)
  • Requires crew to maintain system, often disabled due to complexity
  • Not fitted to all T-90 variants (Indian T-90S lacks Shtora)

Fire control system

1A45T "Irtysh" (T-90A):

  • Gunner's sight: 1G46 thermal imaging channel (Catherine-FC, 2,000-2,500 m detection)
  • Commander's sight: PNK-4S or TKN-4S-01 day/night periscope
  • Laser rangefinder: Accuracy ±10 m to 5,000 m
  • Ballistic computer: Automatic lead calculation, meteorological corrections
  • Hunter-killer capability: Commander can acquire targets independently, slew gun to bearing

Kalina fire control (T-90M):

  • Digital architecture replacing analog systems
  • Automatic target tracking
  • Improved thermal imaging (3rd generation FLIR)

Autoloader

6ETs43 carousel autoloader:

  • Capacity: 22 rounds in rotary rack under turret floor
  • Loading time: 6-7.1 seconds per round
  • Safety: Ammunition isolated from crew by horizontal blast door
  • Criticism: Vulnerability if hull penetrated (catastrophic detonation), cannot be reloaded during combat

Variants and modernizations

Production variants

T-90 (Object 188, 1992-1998): Initial production with Shtora-1, basic thermal sight

T-90A (2004+): Improved welded turret (vs. cast), V-92S2 1,000 hp engine, enhanced Kontakt-5, commander's thermal sight

T-90M "Proryv" ("Breakthrough", 2017+): Deep modernization with new turret, 2A46M-5 gun, Kalina FCS, Relikt ERA, improved engine (1,130 hp), panoramic commander's sight, remote weapon station

T-90S: Export variant (standard configuration for foreign customers)

T-90SK: Command tank with additional radios and navigation equipment

T-90M "Proryv-3": Latest standard with comprehensive digital modernization

Foreign variants

T-90S "Bhishma" (India): Licensed production at Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi; over 2,000 built, lacks Shtora (Indian preference for additional ERA instead)

T-90MS "Tagil": Export upgrade package with 1A45T-01 FCS, 2A46M-5 gun, soft-kill APS, demonstrated but limited orders

Specialized variants

BREM-90 "Bison": Armored recovery vehicle with crane, winch, dozer blade

IMR-3M: Combat engineering vehicle with excavator arm, mine plow

Operational deployment

Service timeline

  • 1989: Object 188 development begins
  • 1992: T-72BU production starts, adopted as T-90
  • 1993: First deliveries to Russian Army
  • 2001: India places large export order (T-90S)
  • 2004: T-90A improved variant production
  • 2011: Combat debut (Syrian Civil War, Assad government forces)
  • 2016: T-90A deployment to Syria by Russian forces
  • 2017: T-90M "Proryv" unveiled
  • 2020+: T-90M gradual deployment to Russian tank units
  • 2022+: Ukraine conflict, documented T-90A/M losses

Operators

Russia: Approximately 550 active service (2020s), 400+ in storage, ~500+ T-90M on order/delivery

India: 2,000+ (licensed production), largest operator

Export customers: Algeria (300+), Azerbaijan (100+), Iraq (73), Turkmenistan, Uganda, Vietnam

Combat record

Syrian Civil War (2011-present): Syrian Arab Army T-90As supplied by Russia; several losses to ATGMs (TOW, Kornet) documented, ERA and APS showed mixed effectiveness

Russian intervention in Syria (2016-2017): Russian T-90As in combat support, propaganda value highlighting survivability vs. ATGMs

Ukraine conflict (2022+): T-90A and T-90M deployment by Russian forces; documented losses to Javelin, NLAW top-attack ATGMs, drones, artillery. Shtora system largely ineffective vs. modern fire-and-forget missiles.

Technical analysis: T-90 demonstrated good survivability vs. older RPG-7 and 1970s-era ATGMs, but vulnerable to top-attack weapons exploiting thin roof armor. ERA effective when maintained, but coverage gaps and improper installation reduced protection in some cases.

Strengths and limitations

Advantages

Cost-effectiveness: Diesel engine 50% cheaper to operate than T-80U gas turbine

Reliability: Proven V-92S2 engine, simplified maintenance vs. T-80

Protection: Kontakt-5 ERA effective vs. 1980s-1990s APFSDS and HEAT threats

Export success: Competitive pricing, robust design, extensive support network

Incremental modernization: T-90M brings capabilities near Western MBT standards at lower cost

Limitations

Crew ergonomics: Cramped, autoloader limits manual loading flexibility

Reverse speed: 10 km/h limits tactical withdrawal capability

Top-attack vulnerability: 40-45 mm roof armor inadequate vs. Javelin, Spike, Brimstone

Shtora limitations: Ineffective vs. modern fire-and-forget ATGMs, high maintenance, often disabled

Situational awareness: Limited vs. Western MBTs with hunter-killer sights and 360° coverage

Ammunition storage: Catastrophic detonation risk if autoloader carousel penetrated

Comparison with contemporaries

vs. M1A2 Abrams (USA): Abrams superior crew survivability (blow-out panels), thermal sights, situational awareness; T-90 lower profile, cheaper, better power-to-weight

vs. Leopard 2A6 (Germany): Leopard 2 better crew ergonomics, armor coverage, fire control; T-90 more compact, amphibious, lower cost

vs. Challenger 2 (UK): Challenger 2 superior armor protection, crew safety; T-90 faster, lighter, better strategic mobility

vs. Type 99A (China): Comparable capabilities, Type 99A more modern electronics; T-90 more combat-proven, export success

Legacy and future

The T-90 represents Russia's strategy of incremental evolution over revolutionary design. While not matching Western MBTs in crew comfort or electronics sophistication, it provides adequate combat capability at 30-40% the cost of an M1A2 or Leopard 2A6.

The T-90M modernization brings the platform closer to contemporary standards with digital fire control, improved protection (Relikt ERA), and enhanced situational awareness. However, fundamental limitations inherited from the 1970s T-72 chassis (cramped interior, autoloader vulnerability, thin roof armor) remain.

Future Russian MBT programs (T-14 "Armata") aim to address these issues with clean-sheet designs, though economic constraints and T-14 production problems ensure T-90 will remain Russia's primary MBT through the 2030s.

Export success, particularly India's licensed production, ensures the T-90 will serve globally for decades.

Related equipment

Related sections

Technical glossary

ERA (Explosive Reactive Armor) : Armor tiles containing explosives detonating outward to disrupt incoming penetrators or shaped charges

Soft-kill APS (Active Protection System) : Countermeasure disrupting missile guidance without hard-kill interception (e.g., Shtora jammers, smoke)

SACLOS (Semi-Automatic Command to Line of Sight) : Missile guidance requiring operator to keep target in crosshairs while controlling missile via radio/wire

RHAe (Rolled Homogeneous Armor equivalent) : Standard protection measurement comparing composite/reactive armor to equivalent thickness of uniform steel

Hunter-killer capability : Commander can independently acquire targets while gunner engages separate target, improving engagement rate